Pericles: Athenian Statesman and Strategos
Pericles was born around 495 B.C., in Athens to Xanthippus, a former Athenian strategos and statesman who led the Greeks to victory at Mycale in 479 and Agraiste, the great granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon, Cleisthenes. Born into a wealthy family, Pericles was fortunate that his family wealth allowed him to study under many Greek philosophers including Zeno, Anaxagoras and Daman. Zeno instructed Pericles in the art of sophistry. Anaxagoras taught him how to conduct himself in a serious and dignified manner in order to command attention and finally, under the skillful watch of Damon, Pericles learned the basics of music and politics.
As a young man, Pericles was well known for oratory skills. Afraid of being ostracized like his father, Xanthippus, Pericles avoided politics as a young man instead, investing his energies in his studies. Pericles eventually joined the Democratic Party in 469 B.C., under the mentorship of Ephialtes.
The Athens government was far from perfect when Pericles joined the Democratic Party. The power of the government rested in the hands of the citizens and ideas were expressed through the assembly. Any free-born male citizens 18 years or older whose voice was powerful enough to be heard among the crowd, was allowed to speak before assembly. When Pericles joined the Democratic Party, there was an imbalance between the three major the political parties. The commoners were against men of birth, the working class against the leisured and educated classes and the poor against the rich. This imbalance of government often resulted in the establishment of poor political policies by aggressive populists who sought private ambition and profit that other led to Athenians statements quarrelling among themselves, resulting in mass confusion among the various political fractions. But not all Athenians were reluctant to hear Pericles’ speeches. In his speech praising the Athenian constitution, Pericles faced a great deal of resistance. According to James A. Andrews, part of the resistance arose from the doubts expressed about the “celebrated negative freedom of private citizens.” According to Andrews, Pericles overcame his audience’s resistance by acknowledging the source of the constitution “the equal share” and the “allegedly unfair consequences for the rich” explaining to them why the constitution did not entail class domination and how all Athens citizens regardless of class shared governance, without sectarian injustice.
In 463 B.C., Pericles made his first public appearance in politics, leading the Athenians in the prosecution of former Athenian strategos Cimon. After driving the Persians out of Chersonnes, Cimon attacked dozens of nearby towns opening a passage to the wealthy country of Macedon. Cimon refused to invade the country of its wealth and was accused of accepting bribes from King Alexander I of Macedon. Cimon was acquitted but the trial itself, set the tone for a rivalry that would last a lifetime.
In 462 B.C., during a revolt which Spartans helots managed to take control of the fortress of Ithome, King Archidamus II enlisted Cimon’s help in putting down the revolt. Two years earlier, Cimon had proved successful putting down revolts in 464 B.C., when Sparta experienced an earthquake and caused which caused the helots to rise and rebel across the country. Cimon marched his army of 4,000 men to Peloponnesus and put down the revolt. This time however, Cimon arrived in Sparta with an army so large that it terrified the Spartans. Fearing that their indifferences would cause the Athenians to join the revolutionaries, Sparta rejected Cimon’s help. The Athenians were outraged and broke their alliances with Sparta.
Cimon having been born into an aristocratic family was naturally sympathetic to Sparta which was governed by a military oligarchy. Athens on the other hand, was pro-democratic. In 461 B.C., the Athens Democratic Party launched an attack on the Areopagus, the most powerful body in the state. The Areopagus, which Cimon was a member, was similar to the Roman Senate which included a council of elders controlled by the Athenian aristocracy. Pericles’ mentor Ephialtes, the leader of the Democratic Party, suggested that the assembly reduce the powers of the Areopagus. Without heavy opposition, the Ecclesia, accepted Ephialtes’ proposal, reducing the powers of the Areopagus and paving the way for the Democratic Party to become the dominant political fraction in Athens.
Shortly after he had convinced the assembly to reduce the powers of the Areopagus, Ephialtes was assassinated paving the way for Pericles to rise to power as the leader of the Democratic Party. As the leader of the Democratic Party, Pericles adopted a policy based on helping Athens’ poor. His rival Cimon, the head of Athens’ conservative party had obtained enormous wealth through the sale of ransoms for Persians prisoners and had no objection using his wealth to help the poor. Pericles, unable to compete with the fortune of Cimon used the most formidable weapon of all to dispose of his opponent; ostracism. Accused of being pro-Sparta and a traitor to his country, Cimon was ostracized and banished from the country for a period of ten years beginning in 461 B.C.
As a statesman, Pericles was responsible for introducing several changes. The most popular being the rules of citizenship. Prior to the ascendancy of Pericles, anyone who had at least one Athenian parent was eligible for citizenship. Pericles changed the rule demanding that in order for one to be a citizen of Athens, both parents had to be of Athenian birth. In another piece of legislation, Pericles in an attempt to move Athens towards complete democracy, proposed legislation to allow all free-born male citizens regardless of birth or wealth to serve as archons.
In 458 B.C, Pericles was elected to the position of strategos. As strategos, Pericles was responsible for managing the affairs of the country both at home and abroad. Relations between Athens and Sparta deteriorated to the point of war. The ostracized, Cimon being faithful to his country volunteered to return to Athens and lend his help against the Spartans at Tanagra. The Athenians refused Cimon’s help but after seeing Cimon’s tribe the Oeneidae fight to the last man, Pericles himself persuaded his fellow Athenians to bring Cimon back from exile. After the battle at Tanagra, Cimon was called upon to negotiate a treaty of peace between Athens and Sparta. After peace was achieved, Cimon convinced his fellow Athenians to turn their warring spirits against their nemesis, the Persians who had taken control of Cyprus and Egypt.
In 454 B.C., the Delian League transferred its treasury from Delos to Athens. Made of a confederation of Greek city-states, the Delian League an alliance formed to the Greeks against King Xerxes and the Persians. In order to maintain the league, each state was assessed according to their ability to pay. The larger, more powerful states contributed ships while the smaller, less fortunate states, contributed money. The money these states contributed were supposed to be used for defense and the rebuilding of the temples which the Persians had destroyed during war, but Pericles instead, used the money to increase the size of Athens’ navy.
In 451 B.C., Cimon the assembly authorized Cimon to launch an attack against the Persians in Cyprus. During the Battle of Salamis while besieging the city of Citium, Cimon was injured where he later, died from the complications of his wounds. Upon Cimon’s death, Cimon’s relative Thucydides, took over the leadership of the conservative party. Harboring resentment over the way Pericles had treated Cimon, the two men developed a rivalry that eventually led to Thucydides’ own ostracism. Fearful that the people of Athens would gravitate towards Thucydides and the conservative party, Pericles used money from public funds to promote the arts and to build dozens of statues and buildings including the Parthenon which was built by the sculptor, Phidias in 447 B.C. The aristocrats fearing that Pericles was acting as a tyrant spending public funds on unnecessary projects which was originally intended to provide for the Delian League’s defense accused Pericles of embezzlement. Pericles responded to their accusions that Athens could do as they wished with the money as there was a surplus of military supplies and the spending would bring Athens great honor by allowing them to create new jobs. Thucydides and the aristocrats eventually managed to convince the assembly that Pericles’ spending was excessive. Pericles responded to the accusations telling the Athenians to charges the costs to him and let the building bear his name rather than theirs. After hearing this, the Athenians had a change of heart and allowed construction to proceed. Thucydides’ resentment over Pericles’ spending eventually led to his own ostracism.
As strategos, Pericles was extremely cautionous and avoided fighting any battle which he knew the odds were not in his favor. The Athenians under Pericles’ leadership, conquered many small cities and islands and compelled them to pay taxes. The Corinthians, the Aeginetians and the Megarians revolted and asked Sparta for their help. Sparta sent ambassadors to try to resolve the conflict but Pericles was in serious trouble facing impeachment over accusions that his friend Phidias had taken some of the gold that was supposed to have gone to build the statue of Athena. Phidias died while serving time in jail, but many accused Pericles himself of having arranged to have Phidias poisoned in an attempt to avoid suspicions that Pericles himself was accepting bribes. Pericles’s wife Aspasia, a former brothel operator was accused of having been disrespectful towards the gods. In order that the Athenians may forget the scandals, Pericles created a disagreement between Athens and Megara which was eventually arbitrated by the Spartans. The representative from Athens was murdered and despite denials from the Spartans, Pericles convinced the assembly to declare war on Sparta.
In 431 B.C., King Archidamus sent a delegation to Athens to demanding that the Athenians surrender. The Athenians refused and Pericles convinced the Athenians to leave their farms and gather within the walls of the city. Archidamus then proceeded to invade the city of Attica but there, he found no one as Pericles had gathered them into the small confirms of the city. In 431 B.C., King Archidamus sent a delegation to Athens to demanding that the Athenians surrender. The Athenians refused and Pericles convinced the Athenians to leave their farms and gather within the walls of the city. Archidamus then proceeded to invade the city of Attica but there, he found no one as Pericles had gathered them into the small confirms of the city. When the Spartans retreated, Pericles led his army in the invasion of Magara. Shortly afterward during the winter of 431 B.C., Pericles delivered an emotional funeral oration which he praised those who had lost their lives and gave advice to the widows and parents of the dead. But the oration wasn’t about the dead as much as it was the city of Athens. Similar to President Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address in which Lincoln invoked the principles of human equality and redefined the Civil War as a struggle for “a new birth of freedom” that would bring equality to all of its citizens and create a unified nation which states’ rights were no longer dominant, Pericles Athens for its patriotism, its ideals of democracy and the condemnation of the warlike, imperialistic state of Sparta.
In 420 B.C., shortly after Pericles delivered the oration, Sparta again, invaded Attica. Pericles again, refused to devise his strategy and kept the Athenians confirmed safely inside the walls of the city. While the Athenians were inside the city, an epidemic broke out which eventually led to Athens’ demise in the war. Outraged at Pericles’ tactics of keeping them on defense inside of the city, the Athenians removed Pericles from office and fined him a sum of 50 talents for embezzlement. Pericles’ chief prosecutor was a populist young democrat named Cleon. Cleon was a new breed of politician that was often accused of echoing many of the speeches that Pericles himself had given during the early years of his political career. Cleon also imitated many of Pericles’ actions as well. When Pericles first joined the Democratic Party, he distanced himself from his friends so that he might not be influenced by their actions. When Cleon joined the Democratic Party he, like Pericles’ also rejected his friends in the belief that familiarity breeds contempt.
While the two men shared many of the same characteristics, they also had their differences. Unlike Pericles who had been born into a wealthy family, Cleon was a working man who owned a chain of fuller shops used in the cleansing of wool. Cleon’s rival Nicias like Pericles’ Cimon, who represented the aristocracy, was a huge supporter of making peace with the Spartans. While Thucydides drew a strong comparison between Pericles and Cleon in his narratives, many historians today believe that Thucydides’ comparisons were a deliberate attempt by Thucydides to portray Cleon as a poor imitation of the original. Whereas Pericles spoke not to please to public, his successors including Cleon, was more concerned about pleasing the people and turning the everyday affairs of the government to the people.
A year later in 429 B.C., the Athenians realizing their mistake, not only forgave him but also returned him to office as strategos. But the plaque had taken its toll. Saddened by the death of his sons, Pericles himself feel victim to the disease the following autumn. Ironically just before Pericles died, the Athenians out of deep respect for their beloved leader, suspended Pericles’ most famous law, the law requiring both parents to be of Athenian birth so that Pericles’ the name and linage would not die out of want of a heir.
Over the years, there has been much debate among modern day historians regarding Pericles’ legacy and its effects on the rest of the world. While Pericles is much to blame for Athens’ fall as he is its rise to power due to his obsessive need to control the democracy of Athens, the reading of Pericles should be required readings for all historians and politicians involved in the democratic form of government. Unlike most ruler-tyrants of the period, Pericles tried in earnest to give the public a voice in the daily affairs of the Athens’ government, but at the same time, realized that giving the people too much power would cause more harm than good as we saw with the policies of Cleon.
No commentsSpanish Donuts: Churros
Named after the horns of the churro breed of sheep commonly found in the grasslands of Huarocho, Spain, churros are short fluted sticks of fried dough that are typically served hot and sprinkled with powdered sugar, cinnamon and dipped in chocolate. Commonly referred to as “Spanish Donuts,” churros were developed in the mountains of Spain by shepherds where fresh baked goods were impossible to obtain. Popular as a breakfast snack, churros were originally the size of a breadstick and were eaten plain or rolled in cinnamon sugar.
Churros in Latin America:
As the churro made its way into Latin America, churros were no longer eaten plain or rolled in sugar. Instead, a hollow, jumbo-sized churro called a churrisimo was created, where it was filled with all kinds of fillings such as chocolate, dulce de leche (caramel) and fruit.
Where to find them:
In most Latin American countries, churros are sold on streets by vendors called churreros. In their native Spain, they are available in cafes called churrerías where they are most often served during breakfast, although they may be served throughout the day as either snacks or desert.
The History of Coffee During the American Civil War
If there was one thing the North and South shared during the Civil War, it was a serious addiction to caffeine. In that respect, the North had a clear advantage.
The Yankees not only controlled most of the heavy industry and financial reserves, they hoarded supplies of caffeine laden coffee beans. In fact, the North had a large reserve of coffee beans, Union soldiers would chew on whole beans as they marched.
Corrupt Union Food Contractors:
During the Civil War, Union supply chains were riddled with corrupt food contractors who often charged top dollar for rotten, stale and insect-ridden foods. Coffee, on the other hand, was nearly always fresh as it was delivered in whole-bean form - making it difficult for even the most dishonest supplier to skimp on quality. It wasn’t that the suppliers didn’t try, when in fact they did. After some crooked contractors began seeking ways to increase their per-pound profits - slipping sand and dirt into packages of fresh ground coffee, Union officials immediately began requesting coffee in the form of whole beans.
In 1861, Union army officials sought ways to cut down on the time soldiers spent roasting and grinding beans, the army switched to a concentrated proto-instant coffee. The new concoction, called “essence of coffee,” was made by boiling prepared coffee, milk, and sugar into a thick gloop, which soldiers then reconstituted by mixing it with water. Thanks to corrupt dairymen selling spoiled milk, the product tasted terrible. After an outbreak of health problems including diarrhea, the army was soon back on the bean.
Coffee in the South:
Due to Union blockades, coffee was in short supply in the South. Prior to the war, a pound of coffee beans cost twenty cents. During the war when the supplies ran out, the price increased to sixty dollars. While the Union successfully managed to keep most imports out of the south, there was some coffee that made through due to Confederate blockade runners, but it wasn’t enough. For the most part, the South had to rely on coffee substitutes, including roasted corn, rye, okra seeds, sweet potatoes, acorns, peanuts and the native yaupon shrub. These alternates not only lacked potency, they tasted awful and were hard to digest.
Trading tobacco for coffee:
Luckily for the people in the south, the South had something the North didn’t - a large supply of tobacco. In order to starve off their addictive cravings, soldiers on the front line would often call truces so that they could trade their products before dashing back to camp to avoid being reported missing.
How to Find the Perfect Apartment Complex
Akin to a scavenger hunt, finding the perfect apartment can be a very time consuming, disheartening task, however if you take the time to educate yourself on the various options available, your apartment hunting experience will be much more enjoyable.
Know What You’re Interested In:
As you are looking for a new apartment, it is a good idea to have in mind some type of idea as to what you would like in your new apartment.
- How many bedrooms and bathrooms would you like for your new apartment to have?
- How much square footage do you need?
- What types of neighborhoods are you interested in?
- What type of price range do you have in mind for your new apartment?
Knowing the price range you’re interested in can save you a lot of time. There is no sense in looking at an apartment unit in which you know is out of your price range or one that does not fit your needs.
Location Matters:
Take note of the location which the apartment complex is located. The location of an apartment unit can be very important when it comes to things like schools, jobs, and neighbors.
Are you looking for a short commute to work? If your family consists of small children, how are the schools that serve the neighborhood in which your child will be attending? How high is the crime rate around the neighborhood in which your apartment complex is located in?
Some of the most alluring apartment complexes that you will come across during your apartment hunting experience will either be located in an area of inconvenient or in an area where the crime rate is increasing rapidly. Most of the more expensive apartment complexes are far removed from unpleasant elements such as high crime and excessive noise and pollution. This of course, is normal so do not let the price of one apartment influence your purchasing decisions as it could be worth paying an extra hundred dollars each month to live in neighborhood where you’ll feel safer.
Check out the Property Management:
Most rental units and apartment complexes are run by licensed property management firms. Find out who is in charge of the rental complex in which you are interested in and check out their reputation. Don’t be afraid to seek input from the unit’s current tenants. Find out what the current tenants think of the property manager and landlord.
Be sure to seek input on their individual property management styles as well. If a majority of the reviews are positive, then you may have just found the perfect apartment complex. On the other hand, if there are a lot of ongoing complaints, it may be a wise idea to look somewhere else.
Take note of the appearance of the apartment complex. Good property managers and landlords take pride in their apartment complexes. A good apartment complex will often have well maintained landscaping, well kept paint jobs, trimmed trees and bushes, and many other appealing elements.
Know your Neighbors:
Knowing your neighbors is very important. Living near people with similar backgrounds and interests, you’re more likely to have a more fulfilling living experience. You’ll be more likely to establish meaningful friendships and endure less conflicts living near individuals who have similar backgrounds and interests than you would living near a group of people who are complete opposites.
If you are a single male, you are most likely to enjoy living around others who are single as well. If you have small children, you may enjoy living in a family-oriented apartment complex. If on the other hand, you are a retiree, you may find living near other retirees more enjoyable than living in an apartment complex composed of young college students.
Don’t be misled into leasing a cheap apartment or taken advantage of by some sort of special deal. Having a clear idea of what you are looking for, will make your apartment hunting experience much more enjoyable.
No commentsApartment Locators and Databases
In large cities like New York where there’s hundreds of apartments spread out over a large geographical area, finding the perfect apartment can become a very time consuming task. Driving from one apartment to another is not only time consuming, the apartments you visit may not meet your needs or in some cases, be available. With so many choices to choose from, a lot of apartment hunters do not know where to start.
When using a search engine to locate an apartment, two types of resources appear in the search results; apartment locators and databases.
If you are moving to an area in which you’re unfamiliar with the area’s neighborhoods, schools, job centers, and transportation services, an apartment locator may be your best choice. Hiring a professional apartment locator may seem expensive, but the truth is, it’s not. On the other hand, if you are relocating to an area in which you have a fairly good knowledge of, an apartment database may be your best choice.
Apartment Locators:
In most states, professional apartment locators are licensed real estate agents who specialize in finding apartments and other types of rental property for their clients. These real estate professionals often get paid a referral or finder’s fee either in the form of a flat fee or a percentage of the monthly rent from the landlord or property manager for referring new clients to sign leases with specific apartment complexes. Because these agents receive a referral fee for their services from the landlord or property management firm, which is why you often see ads in the newspapers and magazines from professional apartment locators advertising their services for free.
These agents are extremely knowledgeable about the area, its apartments, and the local rental market. By working with a professional apartment locator, you must be open to the idea of personal contact. You will be required to allow the apartment locator to contact you either by phone or email and you must be willing to describe to the locator, the type of apartment or rental property in you are interested. You will also need to describe your personal preferences, needs, budget, and of course, any other circumstances which might influence your apartment seeking decisions.
While it’s often very cost effective, working with a professional apartment locator isn’t for everyone. It all depends on how comfortable you are in sharing your information with someone whom you may or may not ever meet. Do you feel comfortable giving out your name, phone number, and budget information to a perfect stranger? If not, then using an apartment database may be your best option in your search for the perfect apartment.
Considering the amount of time you have to spend looking at different apartments on your own, the cost can be significant. Knowing your very own unique wants and needs, a professional apartment locator can help you narrow your choices saving both time and money. Of course, the biggest advantage of using the services of an apartment finder is that the company will have a database of apartments which shows availability. Therefore the apartment finder will know which rentals are on the market. This way you don’t waste time trying to track down apartments with availability.
Apartment Databases:
If you are somewhat familiar with the area in which you are relocating to, using an apartment database may be your best option in finding your next apartment or rental property. With apartment databases, you have at your fingertips, a broad selection of online apartment listings which may or may not include maps, list of amenities that the unit includes, price ranges, and the listing agent’s contact information. There may also be pictures of the unit inside and outside showing the interior and exterior of a typical apartment or unit within the rental complex as well as photos of the clubhouses, pools, and other on-site facilities.
Basically an apartment database is just like your local MLS that you would use to search for local homes for sale. Of course, most listing sites will require you to register your name and provide your email address, but with the exception of a newsletter every month or two, you are rarely contacted by anyone seeking input on your preferences. Of course, many site use cookies, so it’s possible that the owners of these databases can determine your individual wants and needs based on the nature of your searching methods.
While this service is often free as well, some sites may offer bonuses such as $100.00 off your first month’s rent or some other financial incentive if you would list their site as your referral during the signing of your new lease. In this situation, the owners of the database often has a working relationship with the landlord or property manager in which he or she is again, paid a referral fee for introducing you to the rental company.
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